![]() The more recent agricultural expansions in the past 200 years, however, linked to increases in population, industrialization and anthropogenic climatic changes, are recognized as the main causal factors of the massive degradation of natural ecosystems that we now experience ( Billings, 1972 Odum and Odum, 1972 Macdonald and Service, 1996 Macdonald and Willis, 2013). Human alteration of natural ecosystems dates back millennia to the use of fire, overexploitation and later to the introduction of agriculture. ![]() Ecosystem ecology has become very important in the 21st century because of the highly accelerated rate of anthropogenic modification of natural systems. Ecosystem ecology is a major part of the discipline of ecology ( Barbault, 1997) the term ecosystem was invented by Sir Arthur Tansley ( Tansley, 1935) for a community of organisms and their environment.
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